AP Psych Unit 1

brain plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Werenicke's area

Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

pituitary gland

the "master gland" of the body's endocrine system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

reticular activating system

Part of brain stem involved in arousal and attention, sleep and wakefulness, and control of reflexes.

left hemisphere

The half of the cerebrum concerned with speech, language, and analytical functions, among other processes. Controls the opposite side of the body.

cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's or Wernicke's area.

somatosensory cortex

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Right Hemisphere

The half of the cerebrum concerned with spatial cognition, facial recognition, visual processing, and emotional processes, among other functions. Controls the opposite side of the body.

Reward Center

A dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated.

Marijuana

A drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations.

Withdrawal

The discomfort, distress, and physical symptoms that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

Alcohol

A common depressant.

Caffeine

A stimulant found in coffee, tea, cola drinks, chocolate, and many over-the-counter medications

Resting Potential

The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.

Twin Studies

A research design in which hereditary influence is assessed by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

kinesthesis

out movement sense - our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

Vestibular Sense

Our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our equilibrium

Phantom Limb Sensation

the perception of sensations or pain in an amputated limb.

Gate Control Theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or information coming from the brain.

Papillae

rough, bumpy elevations on surface of tongue; sensory receptors that send signals for taste to the brain.

olfactory bulb

the brain center that processes smell, located below the frontal lobes

Gustation

Our sensation of taste

Olfaction

Our sensation of smell

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

The most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve. Also called nerve deafness.

Conduction Hearing Loss

A less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Sound Localization

the ability to identify the position and changes in position of sound sources based on acoustic information - relies on the use of both ears.

Frequency Theory

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. Also called temporal coding.

Volley Theory

The theory that groups of neurons in the auditory system respond to a sound by firing action potentials slightly out of phase with one another so that when combined, a greater frequency of sound can be encoded and sent to the brain to be analyzed.

Place Theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. Also known as place coding.

Wavelength

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Determines hue in light, and pitch in sound.

Amplitude

The height of a light or sound wave. Determines brightness in light and loudness in sound.

Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Prosopagnosia

Also known as face blindness - an inability to recognize faces.

Monochromatism

A type of color deficiency in which two cone types are missing or malfunctioning.

Dichromatism

A type of color deficiency in which one cone type is missing or malfunctioning.

Ganglion Cells

the specialized cells whose axons form the optic nerve, which takes the information to the brain

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

Afterimage

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.

Cones

Retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or well-lit conditions. Cones detect detail and give rise to color sensations.

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

Opponent-Process Theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, but others may be stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Trichromatic Theory

The theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, and one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Accommodation

In sensation, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina.

Blind Spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because there are no receptor cells located there.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Synesthesia

A condition in which stimulation of one sense generates a simultaneous sensation in another.

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Sensory Adaptation

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation

Just-Noticeable Difference

the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation.

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Somnambulism

The condition of walking or performing some other activity without awakening; also known as sleepwalking

Sleep Apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Insomnia

Tecurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Consolidation Theory

The theory that circuits wired together during the waking period are consolidated, or strengthened, during sleep

Activation Synthesis Theory

Theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story

REM Sleep

A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

NREM Sleep

Quiet, typically dreamless sleep in which rapid eye movements are absent; divided into four stages; also called quiet sleep.

Circadian Rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. Show brain anatomy.

Lesions

Tissue destruction. May occur naturally, during surgery, or experimentally.

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow, and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Show function as well as structure.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

Brain Lateralization

The organization of the brain into right and left hemispheres, with each hemisphere performing unique and specialized functions.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways.

Split Brain Research

Surgical cutting of the corpus callosum to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres - specifically, the independent functioning of the two hemispheres.

Wernicke's Area

A brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression.

Broca's Area

A frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech.

Motor Cortex

A cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobe athat controls voluntary movement.

Temporal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears. It includes the auditory areas, which receive information primarily from the opposite ear. The left hemisphere also enables language processing.

Frontal Lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. Enables linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and decisions)

Parietal Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobe

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories - of facts and events - for storage.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Amygdala

Two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked with emotion.

Hypothalamus

A limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Thalamus

The forebrain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Limbic System

Neural system located mostly in the forebrain - below the cerebral hemispheres - that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives.

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain's cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

Cerebellum

The hindbrain's "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Reticular Activating System

The nerve network that travels through the brain stem and into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

Medulla

The hindbrain structure that is the brainstem's base; controls heart rate and breathing.

Brain Stem

The central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.

Addiction

The everyday term for compulsive substance use.

Tolerance

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

Opioids

Opium and its derivatives; drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic, "mind manifesting" drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action.