AP Psych - Unit 1B

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

blindsight

a condition in which people who are blind have some spared visual capacities in the absence of any visual awareness; a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it. (working eyeballs, broken visual cortex)

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

alpha waves (EEG)

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state (a = awake)

delta waves (EEG)

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (d = deep sleep)

NREM Sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

NREM-1

the transition into sleep, marked by slowed breathing and irregular brain waves; hypnagogic sensations/hallucinations, and myclonic jerks may occur (alpha waves)

NREM-2

Sleep stage characterized by its periodic sleep spindles, or bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity. About half the night is spent in this phase. (theta waves)

NREM-3

deep sleep (delta waves); intervals become smaller as the night progresses

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active; intervals become larger as the night progresses

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

area of the hypothalamus in which the body's biological clock is located; processes light/darkness & controls melatonin production

jet lag

a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones; can occur when light cues from the new environment do not match one's internal clock

Lack of sleep

sleep deprivation = affects mood, aggressive behavior, depression, offset metabolism (gain weight), weaker immune system, weakened cognitive functions such as a decreased attention/reaction time

Insomina

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolespy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep apnea

a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods while asleep: lost of oxygen -> deep snore -> short awakened period

REM sleep behavior disorder

a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams

Somnambulism

sleepwalking; performing activites in one's sleep, NREM-3

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation; when one is deprived of REM sleep, they will enter REM quicker and increase the time spent in that stage -> REM sleep is needed for cognitive functioning

Memory consolidation theory

dreams/sleeping are a result of the brain's process of consolidating memories while sleeping

restoration theory

proposes that sleeping/dreams provides 'time out' to help us recover from activities during waking time that use up the body's physical and mental resources; sleeping/dreams are necessary for the body to recover

activation synthesis theory

a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories; dreams are a byproduct of a brain's random neural firing

sensation

the biological process of sensing the world

sensory receptors

take in stimulus energies and modify/transport them to the brain for further analysis

prosopagnosia

face blindness, example of how sensation and perception can differ; people can see the face but are unable to interpret/recognize the visual stimulu

transduction

in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

top-down processing

using pre-existing knowledge, experiences, and expectations to interpret sensory information. (Pre-existing knowledge, "B" or "13")

bottom-up processing

This approach starts with the sensory input, moving from basic features to more complex interpretations. It relies on the information coming from the environment to build up a perception. (Current knowledge, horiztonal and vertical blocks)

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time (ex: seeing a candle flame 30 miles away)

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. (ex: A soldier on duty is more vulnerable to their senses and may incorrectly assume a stimulus)

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

difference threshold (jnd)

just noticable difference, the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. The smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected (ex., noticing a weight change or a sound increase)

weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (ex: Getting used to a loud buzzing air conditioner)

light waves

electromagnetic waves that stimulate receptors in the eye

wavelengths of light

distance from the peak of one light wave to the peak of the next to determine hue: short wavelength = high frequency (violet), long wavelength = low frequency (red)

amplitude (light wave)

height of the light wave determines brightness: great amplitude = bright color, small amplitude = dull color

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus light images on the retina (focus light)

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information (converts light -> electrical signals)

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

rod cells

work best in dim light and enable you to see black, white, and shades of gray

cone cells

work best in bright light and enable you to see colors and details

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells (recieve electrical signals, distribute to ganglion cells)

ganglion cells

the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot (optic disc)

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory:

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. Since numerous cells can fire, the combination and proportion of the cells allow

us to see a variety of colors and shades.

Explain the worldwide phenomenon of colorblindness.

Monochromatic vision

can only see shades of one color

Dichromatic vision

can only see shadoes of two colors

Opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green (ex: Red, white, & blue American flag)

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

sound waves

a longitudinal wave consisting of compressions and rarefactions, which travels through a medium

amplitude (sound wave)

height of a sound wave, connects to our perception of loudness (greater amplitude = stronger sound)

Decibels

A unit of measurement of loudness (ex: 60 decibels is an average conversation, overexposure to 85+ could result in hearing loss)

Frequency (sound wave)

determines pitch, measured in hertz (low frequency = low pitch, high frequency = high pitch)

eardrum

a thin membrane that marks the beginning of the middle ear; sound waves cause it to vibrate

3 tiny bones (ear)

in the middle ear, the hammer, anvil, stirrup transmit the eardrum's vibrations onto the oval window

oval window

membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

hair cells (ear)

located in the cochlea's lower part (basilar membrane), they bend to vibrations, w/ their movement triggering neural firings and the impulses travel down the auditor nerve. Loudness is determined by the number of hair cells stimulated. (louder sound = more hair cells stimulated)

Sensorineural deafness

deafness that results from damage to the auditory nerve or hair cells (ex: aging)

conduction deafness

rarer deafness, an inability to hear resulting from damage to structures of the middle or inner ear (ex: overexposure to loud noises, deep sea diving = ruptured eardrum, etc)

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated, explains high pitches

frequency matching theory

the view that some sounds are coded in terms of the frequency of neural firing, explains low pitches

volley theory

sounds above 1000 waves per second, neural cells alternate firing

ears

determine the location of sounds

skin

largest organ and sense receptor of the body; pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

pain

an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage; produced by your senses and is a psychological perception

nocieptors

sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. (ex: hitting nail on finger = open gate, rubbing finger softly = closing gate)

phantom limb sensations

When you get your leg amputated and your brain thinks the pain is still there; evidence that biological signals are not needed for experiencing pain

gustation

sense of taste

5 basic tastes

sweet (energy source), sour (potentially toxic acid), salty (sodium for pschological processes), bitter (potential poison), umami (protein) (burger)

supertaster

a person who experiences the sense of taste with far greater intensity than average

olfaction

sense of smell

kinesthesis

the sense that provides information about the position and movement of individual body parts

proprioceptors

Sensory receptors, located in the muscles and joints, that provide information about body position and movement.

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance; detects change in motion/oritentation, works in conjuction with kinesthesis (ex: ears' liquid help balance)

synesthesia

a phenomenon that causes sensory crossovers (ex: tasting colors, feeling sounds)

mcgurk effect

an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched. (ba ba ba ba fa ba ba ba)