AP PSYCH FINAL PUSH

Nervous System

• Central

• Peripheral

  • Autonomic

    • automatic/involuntary functions

    • “fight or flight”

  • Somatic

    • conscious/voluntary movement

    • “rest & digest”

Neurons vs. Glial Cells

Neurons: carry electrical/chemical signals

Glial Cells: support (maintain structure, insulate, communicate, remove waste)

Reflex Arc

rapid, automatic responses to stimuli that don’t require input from the brain

• Sensory neurons

  • detect stimuli & send to spinal cord

• Interneurons

  • process info and relay to motor neurons

• Motor Neurons

  • send signals to muscles to produce a response

Neural Transmission

• Neuron

  • at rest, it maintains a resting potential (stable charge)

when stimulated

• Depolarization

  • electrical signal travels down the neuron

    • depolarization: inside positive

    • polarization: inside negative

    • fires all or nothing

• Refractory Period

  • brief period where it can’t fire again

signal reaches end of neuron

• Neurotransmitters Released

  • into synapse

  • either reabsorbed in re-uptake or broken down

Multiple Sclerosis

• Disorder→protective covering of neurons is damaged

• slows/blocks signals between brain and body

  • muscle weakness & coordination problems

Myasthenia Gravis

• Communication between neurons & muscles is disrupted→muscle weakness & fatigue

Dopamine (NT)

• movement

• motivation

• reward system (excitatory)

Serotonin (NT)

• mood

• appetite

• sleep (inhibitory)

Norepinephrine (NT)

• alertness

• response to stress (excitatory)

Glutamate (NT)

• main excitatory neurotransmitter

• learning

• memory

GABA (NT)

• main inhibitory neurotransmitter

• calms neural activity

• prevents overstimulation

Endorphins (NT)

• painkillers (inhibitory)

  • reduce discomfort

  • promote pleasure

Substance P (NT)

• transmits pain signals (excitatory)

Acetylcholine (NT)

• muscle movement (excitatory)

• attention

• memory

Neurotransmitters vs. Hormones

Neurotransmitters:

• travel quickly across synapses

Hormones:

• released into bloodstream

• effects slower but long-lasting

Adrenaline (HM)

• fight or flight

• prepares body for action (in response to stress)

  • increases heart rate

  • increases energy

Leptin (HM)

regulates hunger

• signals fullness

Ghrelin (HM)

regulates hunger

• increases appetite

Melatonin (HM)

• regulates sleep cycles

Oxytocin (HM)

love hormone

• social bonding

• trust

• personal connection

Psychoactive Drugs

• alter neural activity→interfere neurotransmitter function

  • agonists: mimic neurotransmitters

  • antagonists: block neurotransmitters

  • reuptake inhibitors: prevent reabsorption→prolonging effects

Stimulants

Increase neural activity→heightened alertness & energy

• caffeine

• cocaine

Depressants

slow down neural activity→relaxation & drowsiness

• sedatives

Hallucinogens

distort perception & cognition→alter sensory experiences

• marijuana

Opioids

pain relievers (mimics effects of endorphins)

• heroin

Cerebellum

motor skills & muscle memory

• coordinates:

  • movement

  • balance

  • supports procedural learning

• allows smooth, precise movements

  • walking

  • writing

  • playing instrument

Cerebral Cortex

Contains specialized regions

• perception

• thought

• language

• decision making

Limbic System (emotions, memory, motivation)

• Thalamus

• Hypotalamus

• Pituitary Gland

• Hippocampus

• Amygdala

Thalamus

relay center

• directs sensory info to appropriate areas of brain

Hypothalamus

• regulates homeostasis

  • hunger

  • thirst

  • body temp

Pituitary gland

hormone release

• growth

• metabolism

Hippocampus

• forming & retrieving memories

amygdala

• processing emotions (fear & aggression)

Split Brian Research

sever corpus callosum so two hemispheres cant communicate

(right know what you’re seeing, left can’t describe it)

• left hemisphere

  • processes language

  • broca’s area: speech production

  • wernicke’s area: speech comprehension

    • damage→aphasia: condition affecting language ability

Brian plasticity

• helps brain reorganize/form new connections

  • learning

  • recovery from injury

Circadian Rhythm

biological process that regulates daily sleep-wake cycle

controlled by:

• light

• temperature

Stages of Sleep

NREM

• Stage 1

  • lightest stage of sleep

  • brief sensory experiences: hypnagogic sensations (falling feeling)

• Stage 2

  • transitional stage (to deep sleep)

• Stage 3

  • deepest stage of sleep

    • restoration

    • immune system functio

REM

• paradoxical sleep

  • brain activity resembles wakefulness

• temporary muscle paralysis

• dreaming

• REM rebound (deprived of REM sleep)→enter stage more quickly, spend more time in it

As the night progresses

• duration of NREM sleep decreases

• REM sleep increases

Theories of Dreaming

Activation-Synthesis Theory

• dreams from neural activity in brainstem interpreted by brain as meaningful experiences

Consolidation Theory

• dreams help process & store memories

  • strengthens learning/problem solving

Sleep Functions

• memory consolidation

  • organizes/strengthens new info

• restores energy

  • replenishes biochemical resources

  • cognitive & physical wellbeing

Insomnia

Difficulty falling/staying asleep

Narcolepsy

• neurological disorder

• sudden & uncontrollable sleep episodes during day

REM sleep behavior disorder

• body doesn’t experience normal REM sleep paralysis

  • allows individuals to physically act out dreams

Sleep Apnea

• Repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep

• leads to:

  • poor sleep quality

  • daytime fatigue

Somnambulism

• sleepwalking

  • during deep NREM

• individuals engage in complex behaviors while still asleep

Absolute Threshold

• minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected

  • detecting anything at all

just-noticeable difference

smallest detectable change in stimulus intensity

• detecting change

Weber’s law

• ability to detect differences depends on the proportion of change rather than a fixed amt.

  • intensity of stimulus increases=larger change needed for person to perceive a difference

Sensory Adaptation

body becomes less sensitive to unchanging stimuli over time

Sensory Interaction

• different senses work together to enhance perception & understanding of environment

  • can lead to synesthesia

Lens

• achieve focus through accommodation

  • accomodation: adjusts focus for near/far objects

  • impaired accomodation→nearsightedness & farsightedness

Opponent-Process Theory

• after leaving retina

• pairs of opposing colors (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) processed together

Prosopagnosia

• facial recognition

• from damage to brain’s visual processing centers

Blindsight

• visual damage→respond to visual stimuli without consciously seeing them

Place Theory

• different frequencies activate different locations along the cochlea

Frequency Theory

• pitch perception is based on how frequently neurons fire in response to sound waves

Volley Theory

groups of neurons fire in alternating sequences to encode higher-frequency sounds

Sound Localization

• detecting differences in how sounds reach each ear

Conduction Deafness

• sound waves can’t reach cochlea due to problems in outer/middle ear

Sensorineural Deafness

• damage to cochlea’s hair cells

• damage to the auditory nerve

umami

savory flavor

oleogestus

fatty flavor

Gate Control Theory

spinal cord regulates the transmission of pain signals

• pain is processed both in the body and the brain

Vestibular System

• balance & body movement

• located in inner ear

• senses movement by detecting changes in head position→brain

  • posture

  • coordination

  • spatial awareness

• disruption leads to

  • dizziness

  • balance problems

  • motion sickness

Kinesthetic System

• helps body sense its position and movement via receptors in muscles, joints, tendons

• allows us to move smoothly, coordinate actions, control strength without needing to look at body

• essential for: walking, picking up things, posture

Top-down processing

• use what we already know to interpret what we sense

Schema

mental framework that helps us organize and understand info

perceptual set

• readiness to perceive something in a certain way based on expectations

Binocular vs. Monocular depth cues

• Binocular depth cues (2 eyes)

  • visual cues requiring both eyes to perceive depth & distance

    • retinal disparity

    • convergence

• Monocular depth cues (1 eye)

  • require only 1 eye to perceive depth and distance

    • relative clarity

    • relative size

    • texture gradient

      • closer=more texture

    • linear perspective

      • parallel lines converge as they move away from you

    • interposition

      • covered object in background

Prototype

• best or more typical example of a category/concept

concepts vs. schemas

concept

• basic category

• ex: bird

schemas

• more detailed framework

• tells you what to expect from that category

• ex: birds have

  • feathers

  • can fly

  • can build nest

• allow us to make sense of world by fitting new experiences into prior knowledge

• change as we gain new info

Assimilation

we do take in new info, but don’t change our existing schema

Accommodation

• new info forces a change in the schema

Algorithm

step by step procedure that guarantees the right answer, as long as it’s followed correctly

• systematically testing every possible option (instead of relying on past experiences or quick guesses)

Heuristic

mental shortcut or rule of thumb

• simplifies problem-solving by relying on experience & intuition rather than exhaustive analysis

Representativeness Heuristic

when we judge something based on how well it matches our expectations or stereotypes

Availability Heuristic

when we make decisions based on the first or most vivid example that comes to mind

• ex: think shark attacks are common, heard a lot on news

Mental Set

• relying on strategies that worked in the past even if not best solution to new situation