The Napoleonic Wars

A conflict between Napoleon Bonaparte's France and alliances of various European states, which began in 1803 and ended with Napoleon's defeat in 1815.

Confederation

A loose association of states which retain some control over their own policies.

Liberalism

A belief that government should be reformed to allow as much personal and economic freedom as possible. Nineteenth-century liberals also favoured the concept of representative assemblies, although these would not necessarily be elected by all adults.

Nationalism

A belief that people with a common language, culture or history should have the right to govern themselves, and that the boundaries between states should be based on this idea.

Guilds

Associations of merchants or craftspeople, often dating back to medieval times, set up to protect the interests of their members. By the 19th century, they were widely seen as outdated and restricting free competition.

Republican

A form of government in which the head of state is not a hereditary ruler, such as a king, but a leader chosen directly or indirectly by those people in the state who have the right to vote.

Constitutional monarchy

A system of government in which a monarch's powers are limited by laws and rules.

Tariffs

Taxes or duties imposed by a government on goods imported into a country.

Radicals

People who want far-reaching changes to a political or social system.

Burschenschaften

Student organizations which developed after 1815 to promote ideas of German nationality, freedom and civil rights.

Sovereignty

Ultimate political authority within a state.

Indirect voting

A system in which voters choose delegates who then elect the representatives to sit in a central assembly or parliament.

Customs union

An association of states who agree to abolish tariffs between themselves, and to operate a common set of tariffs on imports from other countries.

Reich

A German term for a realm or empire. In modern history, it has been applied to the unified German state of 1871-1918 (the Second Reich) and to Hitler's Germany (the Third Reich, 1933-45).

Elector

A title used by some German princes, derived from the fact that they elected the Holy Roman Emperor until the dissolution of the empire by Napoleon I in 1806.

Suffrage (or franchise)

The right to vote.

Schleswig-Holstein

Two adjacent territories between the Baltic and North seas. Although not part of Denmark, they were under the personal authority of the Danish king as their duke. Holstein was German-speaking and was also part of the German Confederation. Schleswig had a mixed Danish- and German-speaking population. As a result, their status was disputed, and German nationalists claimed that they should be treated as one, and be part of the Confederation.

Venetia

An area of northern Italy, including the city of Venice, which was not yet part of the Italian kingdom. Italy, like Germany, was in the process of being unified in the 1860s, and its king, Victor Emmanuel II, was keen to enlarge his new state by acquiring this region.

General staff

A group of army officers who assist a senior commander in planning and carrying out military operations.

Indemnity bill

A law passed to protect people who might otherwise face penalties for illegal conduct.

Reparations

Money that one country has to pay another as compensation for war damage.

Buffer zone

A protective area separating two potentially hostile countries.