AP Psych - Unit 2B

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

Storage (memory)

refers to how you retain encoded information in memory

Retrieval (memory)

refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory

Recognition (memory)

a measure of memory in which a person identifies items

previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Recall (memory)

a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve

information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Relearning (memory)

memory demonstrated by time saved when learning material a second time

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the

activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

Phonological loop:

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or

forgotten

ex: Phone Number Digits

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second (type of sensory memory)

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect (retrieval practice effect/test-enhanced learning)

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

semantic memory

explicit memories of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

explicit memories of personally experiened events

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

hippocampus (memory)

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before 3-4 years old

procedural memory

the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

Cerebellum & Basal Ganglia (memory)

Formation of implicit memories

Flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event, linked to amygdala

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place. (same environment)

ex: scuba divers that learned info underwater performed better underwater

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood (same emotions)

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind. (same drug)

ex: if you hide something while drunk you'll struggle to find it sober, but when you get drunk again you more easily know its location

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (recenecy effect), and the first items in a list after a delay (primacy effect)

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

primacy effect

tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the middle effects

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

ex: Purposefully not encoding that the back of the one dollar bill has the word ONE

forgetting curve

Forgetting occurs rapid at first and then tapers off

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information (old information interferes with new information)

ex: Learning Spanish, after learning French previously

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (new information interferes with old information)

ex: After studying for tomorrow's 2nd exam, the AP Psych exam, this new material may interfere with your old study session of APUSH

constructive memory

memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

ex: did you see the red car SMASH into the black car?

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

ex: I swear Joe told me! (it was gerald)

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred