what is taxonomy?

the science that organizes organisms based on similar characteristics or DNA information

what is phylogeny?

evolutionary history

what is eubacteria?

bacteria that can be found in everything, it is very diverse

what is archaebacteria?

bacteria that can only be found in extreme and harsh conditions, such as super hot or acidic environments

what are the order of the classifications? think “did katie pour coffee on frank’s good shirt?”

domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

what are the three groups of domain?

eukaryota, archaea, and bacteria

what are the four groups of kingdom?

eubacteria, archaebacteria, protists, fungi

what are the animal class groups?

fish, reptiles, mammals, birds, amphibians

who is the father of modern taxonomy?

carolus linnaeus

how did linnaeus organized organisms? what were the three large groups?

he did it by appearance, and the three large groups were plants, animals, and minerals/non-living organisms

what are taxons?

smaller groups of classification

how are scientific names written?

in latin, with the genus first and the species second

what type of nomenclature is linnaeus’s taxonomy?

binomial nomenclature

what is a virus?

a chemical that varies in shapes and sizes made out of genetic material surrounded by a capsid

why isn’t a virus a living being?

it has no metabolism, can’t reproduce on its own, don’t respond to stimuli, don’t grow and develop, but can evolve as a population

what do viruses need to survive?

it needs hosts to survive, and they’re usually species specific

how does a virus replicate itself?

the virus binds to a receptor protein of a cell surface and “trick” it to allow it inside. it will inject its own DNA or RNA inside the cell, which will assemble into new viruses. the host will burst and the virus repeats this to other cells.

what are the two types of virus reproduction?

lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle

how does the lytic cycle work?

the virus attaches itself to a receptor protein and injects its DNA into the cell. the viral DNA or RNA immediately starts transcribing and translating to create duplicates of itself. when everything is finished, the host cell bursts and dies. the viruses repeat this process with other cells.

how does the lysogenic cycle work?

the virus attaches itself to a receptor protein and injects its DNA into the cell. it becomes a part of the host cell’s genome, so whenever the host cell copies itself, it also copies the viral DNA. this allows the virus to be dormant in the body for years until it is triggered and enters into the lytic cycle.

how to viruses cause disease?

the virus target specific tissues and hijack their ribosomes to copy themselves.

T/F? Antibiotics can cure viruses.

false

what are plasmids?

small circular DNA fragments containing 1-3 genes

what are bacteria cell walls made out of?

peptidoglycen

what are capsules?

allows bacteria to hide in immune systems and stick to surfaces

what are fimbriae?

used for sticking to materials but isn’t used for movement

what is a flagella

a whip-like tail is used to swim and move

what are pili?

rigid structures that allow bacteria to pass plasmids to one another

what is conjugation?

an exchange of plasmids through pili

what are the three classifications of bacteria?

spherical, rod-like, and spiral

how do bacteria reproduce asexually?

the nucleoid region is copied. the bacteria then performs mitosis, splitting into two identical bacteria. this process lacks genetic variation, but can be improved by conjugation.

how do bacteria cause disease?

the bacteria invades the organism, using their cells for food. it’ll release toxins that can travel to different tissues throughout the body if it’s in the bloodstream. it can be treated through antibiotics

what are the benefits of bacteria?

it creates foods like yogurt, cheese, and pickels, it decomposes matter and helps with life cycle, it helps prevent infections, improves gut health, and creates vitamin K in human bodies, and it helps create antibodies, insulin, HGH, vitamins, and other drugs

what are pathogens?

disease causing bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms

what percent of bacteria are pathogens?

1%

Who is Charles Darwin?

A British scientist that created the theory of evolution and natural selection

What are the three requirements of evolution?

1. Lots of time
2. Evidence that organisms have evolved
3. A common pattern/mechanism that can bring about the change

What are the four eras of Earth?

Pre-Cambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

What is the endosymbiotic theory?

Some eukaryotic organelles started out as single-celled prokaryotes but were engulfed by early prokaryotic cells. This created a symbiotic relationship and eventually became integrated into the cell.

What is the order of existence of all life on Earth?

prokaryotic bacteria, cyanobacteria, aerobic bacteria, eukaryotic single-celled bacteria, multicellular organisms

what are homologous structures? what are analogous structures? what are vestigial structures?

homologous structures have the same structure but different functions, and this supports a common ancestor. analogous structures have different structures but the same function, and this doesn’t support a common ancestor. vestigial structures are useless structures.

how do you tell the age of a fossil?

through absolute dating, which is determining the exact age using radiometric dating of rock and ash, or relative dating, which is approximating the age through its surrounding rock layers.

what is the law of superposition?

older rocks are always beneath younger rocks

what is evolution?

the theory that all living things' populations will change over time

what were the four observations that led Darwin to create the theory of evolution? what are their definitions? (think Outraged Chickens Vilify Iguanas)

1. overproduction, organisms create more offspring to survive,
2. competition, organisms compete for resources as populations increase
3. variation, all organisms differ and variation is inherited
4. inheritance, organisms with advantages survive to pass their genes to their offspring:

what is the mechanism for evolution?

natural selection

what is natural selection?

change in a population that occurs when organisms with favorable traits for a specific environment reproduce and pass on these traits to their offspring

what is genetic variation?

differences of traits between offspring

what are adaptations?

traits that improve an organism’s’ chance of survival and reproduction

what are species?

related organisms that have common traits and are capable of breeding to create fertile and healthy offspring

what is adaptive radiation?

when species evolve to occupy all the ecological jobs or niches of a new area

what does divergence lead to? what is its definition?

speciation, the formation of a new species

what are the two reasons for a new species?

reproductive isolation and allopatric or sympatric speciation

what is reproductive isolation?

there is a reason why the group will not mate with other groups

what is allopatric speciation? what is sympatric speciation?

allopatric speciation is when they are in two different places and can’t breed. sympatric speciation is when they don’t breen because they don’t want to, such as mating season, preference, or body size

what is coevolution?

when two or more species evolve in response to each other as a result of their symbiotic relationship

what is a phylogenetic tree or cladogram?

diagrams that show the relatedness of organisms and also show what traits they and and the order the traits evolved

what is genetic equilibrium?

the frequency of alleles in a population’s genome doesn’t vary over generations

what’s the difference between genetic equilibrium and evolution?

genetic equilibrium has no change in allele frequency while evolution does have a change in allele frequency

what is macroevolution?

Evolution that happens to groups of organisms above the level of an individual species over a relatively long period of time

what is microevolution?

Evolution that happens over a relatively short period of time

what are the requirements for natural selection? (think Vile Snakes Inspect Turtles) what are its definitions?

1. variation, different traits in a population
2. selection, traits that give higher chance of survival and reproduction in a competitive environment
3. inheritance, genetic traits that are passed on to offspring
4. time, certain trains will become more common over time

what are some reasons for natural selection?

overpopulation, changing environment or habitat, resource competition, and predators

what are the types of natural selection? (think Deranged Seahorses Damage Ships) what are their definitions?

1. Directional Selection, the average shifts toward one of the extreme, homozygous phenotypes
2. Stabilizing Selection, the average, heterozygous phenotype is most favored
3. Disruptive Selection, both extreme, homozygous phenotypes are favored
4. Sexual Selection, males and females in a population have different phenotypes

what are the agents/mechanisms of evolution? (think Never Make Noodles Greasy)

1. Natural selection, organisms with helpful traits pass them on to their offspring, which helps them with their survival and reproduction
2. migrations, individuals and their genetic material move between different populations
3. non-random mating, inbreeding or organisms choose mates based on traits
4. genetic drift, change in genetic frequency due to random chance

what is the bottleneck effect?

an event like a natural disaster significantly reduces the population, creating random genetic changes without regard to adaptation

what is the founder effect?

when a small group splits off from the main colony, causing the allele frequency to change

what are some good evidence of evolution? (think Elongated Horses Find Berries) what are their definitions?

1. embryology, studying early embryos of animals to look for similarities
2. homologous structures, structures that look similar but have different functions,
3. fossils, preserved traces of prehistoric life
4. biochemistry, DNA sequencing for similarities between species

what is phylogeny?

the evolutionary history of organisms

what is allele frequency?

how common a specific allele is in a population as a fraction in decimal form

what does genetics mean?

study of heredity

what is a gene?

segment of DNA that codes for a particular trait

what are traits?

physical quality coded by genes

what are alleles?

different variations of the same trait

what’s the difference between genotype and phenotype?

genotype is the genetic makeup for the trait, and the phenotype is the physical, shown trait

what is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous?

homozygous have the two identical alleles, while heterozygous have two different alleles

what are carriers?

organisms with a gene but aren’t affected

is PKU autosomal dominant or recessive?

autosomal recessive

what is the cause of PKU? what are the side effects? how can it be controlled?

A lack of a liver enzyme causes PKU, and it causes severe brain damage and intellectual disabilities. it can be controlled by a careful diet of special milk for infants and a vegetarian diet for older patients

is cystic fibrosis autosomal dominant or recessive?

autosomal recessive

what causes cystic fibrosis? what are the side effects? which groups are mostly affected?

a gene change on chromosome 7 causes cystic fibrosis, and it causes lung congestion and infection, and nutrient malabsorption by the pancreas. most patients die by 30 years old and is most commonly found in white people

is tay-sachs autosomal dominant or recessive?

autosomal recessive

what causes tay-sachs? what are the side effects? which groups are mostly affected?

A defective gene on chromosome 15 causes tay-sachs, with patients having deteriorating mental and physical abilities, blindness, deafness, and paralysis. most patients die by 2-5 years. most patients are Ashkenazi Jews and Irish.

is huntington’s autosomal dominant or recessive?

autosomal dominant

what causes huntington’s? what are the side effects? which group does it mostly affect?

a defect in chromosome 4 causes huntington’s, and it causes a loss of muscle control and brain function. most affected are white patients in their 30s and 40s

is it possible to be a carrier for huntington’s?

no, because it’s a dominant disease. if the huntington’s gene is present, they will have huntington’s.

what’s the difference between codominance and incomplete dominance?

codominance is showing both traits, and both alleles have to be dominant. incomplete dominance is a combination of both alleles, creating a new trait.

what are polygenic traits?

traits determined by more than one gene

what are sex-linked traits?

traits determined by sex chromosomes

what does multiple alleles mean

what are blood antigens?

sugar or protein markers on red blood cell surfaces

what are antibodies?

proteins in blood plasma made by white blood cells that float in the blood and agglutinate foreign antigens on red blood cells

what antibodies does blood type a have? what antigens does blood type a have? what type of blood can blood type a people accept?

anti-b antibodies, a antigens, and they can only accept type a blood

what antibodies does blood type b have? what antigens does blood type b have? what type of blood can blood type b people accept?

anti-a antibodies, b antigens, and they can only accept type b blood

what antibodies does blood type ab have? what antigens does blood type ab have? what type of blood can blood type ab people accept?

no antibodies, both a and b antigens, and they can accept all types of blood

what antibodies does blood type o have? what antigens does blood type o have? what type of blood can blood type o people accept?

both anti-a and anti-b antibodies, no antigens, they can only accept type o blood

what blood type is the universal donors? what blood type is the universal acceptor?

type o is the universal donors, type ab is the universal acceptor

what are pedigrees?

a scientific family tree that tracks the inheritance of one specific trait

what are the differences between dominant and recessive traits?

dominant traits only need one allele to be present, show up in every generation, have no carriers, and two parents with the trait can have a child who doesn’t. recessive traits need two traits to be present, can skip generations, can have carriers, and two parents without the trait can have a child who does.